Defense and Security: Hybrid Threats | Open Government Partnership

Hybrid Threats

The evidence is clear: democratic societies are more peaceful societies. Yet they are also vulnerable to attacks via hybrid threats, which complement conventional military operations with cyberattacks, disinformation campaigns, economic coercion, and the use of proxy forces, among other tools. These efforts to destabilize democracies are not new, but NATO notes that the “speed, scale and intensity” of such attacks, exacerbated by rapid technological advancements, increases the danger of hybrid threats. Hybrid threats pose unique challenges to democratic societies, specifically because they are free and often have porous borders. Recent research identifies constant, multi-faceted hybrid attacks on NATO members in just the last few years. Such destabilizing attacks target civilian populations and democratic institutions, aiming to polarize societies and erode public trust. Open government approaches can build democratic resilience against hybrid threats by engaging citizens as partners in defense while still protecting civil liberties.

Key Terms The Evidence Reform
Guidance Active OGP
Partners Benchmarking
Data Guidance
& Standards

Key Terms

Definitions for key terms such as hybrid threats and democratic resilience.

Hybrid Threats: Hybrid threats refer to “a wide array of harmful activities with different goals,” including “information manipulation, cyberattacks, economic influence or coercion, covert political manoeuvring, coercive diplomacy, or threats of military force.” These threats are designed to destabilize societies and weaken democratic institutions, while remaining ambiguous and deniable.
Democratic Resilience: This refers to a society’s capacity to maintain democratic governance and social cohesion in the face of hybrid threats, crises, or external pressures.
Total Defense: Total defense is a whole-of-society approach to security that integrates military, civilian, and private sector efforts in national defense and resilience building.
Pre-Bunking: Pre-bunking (as opposed to “debunking”) refers to proactive communication strategies that provide accurate information to preempt and counter disinformation before it spreads.
Information Integrity: Information integrity refers to the quality and reliability of information in public discourse, including measures to combat disinformation while preserving freedom of expression.

SHOW KEY TERMS

HIDE SHOW KEY TERMS

The Evidence

Open government approaches strengthen societal resilience against hybrid threats by building trust and engaging citizens in defense.

Media literacy programs in Lithuania and other countries have shown measurable success in reducing susceptibility to disinformation campaigns.
Transparent government communications and fact-checking partnerships, as demonstrated in Ukraine, help maintain public morale and counter false narratives during crises.
Civic participation in cybersecurity, exemplified by Estonia‘s Cyber Defence League, improves threat detection and response capabilities while maintaining democratic oversight.

Reform Guidance

The recommendations below represent reforms that national and local governments, representatives of civil society organizations, and others can consider for their action plans and the Open Gov Challenge. The reforms are categorized according to OGP’s principal values: transparency, civic participation, and public accountability. Reforms should be adapted to fit the domestic context, and involve and coordinate with other levels and branches of government.

Reforms across policy areas are also tagged by the estimated degree of difficulty in implementation. Though progress is often not linear, the recommendations have been categorized using these labels to give the reader a sense of how different reforms can work together to raise the ambition of open government approaches.

Recommended Reforms Key

OGP Values

Transparency: Transparency empowers citizens to exercise their rights, hold the government accountable, and participate in decision-making processes. Examples of relevant activities include the proactive or reactive publication of government-held information, legal or institutional frameworks to strengthen the right to access information, and disclosing information using open data standards.

Civic Participation: When people are engaged, governments and public institutions are more responsive, innovative, and effective. Examples of relevant initiatives include new or improved processes and mechanisms for the public to contribute to decisions, participatory mechanisms to involve underrepresented groups in policy making, and a legal environment that guarantees civil and political rights.
Public Accountability: Public accountability occurs when public institutions must justify their actions, act upon requirements and criticisms, and take responsibility for failure to perform according to laws or commitments. Importantly, public accountability means that members of the public can also access and trigger accountability mechanisms. Examples of relevant activities include citizen audits of performance, new or improved mechanisms or institutions that respond to citizen-initiated appeals processes, and improved access to justice.
Inclusion: Inclusion is fundamental to achieving more equitable, representative, and accountable policies that truly serve all people. This includes increasing the voice, agency, and influence of historically discriminated or underrepresented groups. Depending on the context, traditionally underrepresented groups may experience discrimination based on gender, sexual identity, race, ethnicity, age, geography, differing ability, legal, or socioeconomic status.

HIDE OGP VALUES

Degree of Difficulty

Foundational: This tag is used for reforms that are the essential building blocks of a policy area. “Foundational” does not mean low ambition or low impact. These recommendations often establish basic legal frameworks and institutional structures.
Intermediate: This tag is used for reforms that are complex and often involve coordination and outreach between branches, institutions, and levels of government, with the public or between countries.
Advanced: This tag is used for reforms that close important loopholes to make existing work more effective and impactful. Specifically, “Advanced” reforms are particularly ambitious, innovative or close important loopholes to make existing work more effective, impactful or sustainable. They are often applied in mature environments where they seek to institutionalize a good practice that has already shown results.

HIDE DEGREE OF DIFFICULTY

Branch of Government

Executive: The executive branch of government is responsible for designing, implementing, and enforcing laws, policies, and initiatives. It is typically led by the head of state or government, such as a president or prime minister, along with their appointed cabinet members. The executive branch’s functions also include overseeing the day-to-day operations of the government, managing foreign affairs, and directing the country’s armed forces. In democratic systems, the executive branch is accountable to the legislature and the electorate, with its powers and limitations outlined in the constitution or legal framework of the respective country.
Legislative: The legislative branch of government is responsible for making laws and regulations and overseeing the functioning of the government. It typically consists of a body of elected representatives, such as a parliament, congress, or assembly, which is tasked with proposing, debating, amending, and ultimately passing legislation. The legislative branch plays a crucial role in representing the interests of the people, as its members are elected to office by the public. In addition to law-making, this branch often holds the power to levy taxes, allocate funds, and conduct certain investigations into matters of public concern. The structure and powers of the legislative branch are usually outlined in a country’s constitution or legal framework, and it serves as a check on the executive and judicial branches to ensure a system of checks and balances within a state.

HIDE BRANCH OF GOVERNMENT

Recommended Reforms

Policy Area	Recommendation	OGP Value	Degree of Difficulty	Government Branch
Transparency	Establish strategic communications capabilities The more and better governments can do to develop active, authoritative and trusted information channels to the public, the better. Create government communications units that provide timely, fact-based public information and coordinate with independent media and fact-checkers to counter information threats. For NATO, information threats refer to “the broad range of hostile information activities conducted by state and non-state actors, including hostile information operations, information manipulation and interference by foreign actors, and disinformation.” Policy Area Transparency OGP Value Transparency Degree of Difficulty Foundational Government Branch Executive Legislative	Transparency	Foundational	Executive Legislative
Transparency	Publish threat assessments and response strategies Regularly release declassified assessments of hybrid threats facing the country and government strategies for addressing them, while protecting sensitive operational details. Policy Area Transparency OGP Value Transparency Degree of Difficulty Foundational Government Branch Executive	Transparency	Foundational	Executive
Transparency	Create transparency in political advertising Implement disclosure requirements for political advertisements, including information about funding sources and targeting criteria, especially during election periods. More advanced countries may require tracking and disclosure of microtargeting algorithms. Policy Area Transparency OGP Value Transparency Degree of Difficulty Intermediate Government Branch Executive Legislative	Transparency	Intermediate	Executive Legislative
Transparency	Develop real-time information sharing systems Establish platforms for sharing verified information in real time about emerging threats with the public during crises, including media, local governments, and civil society groups. Policy Area Transparency OGP Value Transparency Degree of Difficulty Intermediate Government Branch Executive	Transparency	Intermediate	Executive
Transparency	Implement algorithmic transparency for government systems Publish information about automated decision-making systems used in security contexts, including their purpose, functioning, and safeguards against bias. Policy Area Transparency OGP Value Transparency Degree of Difficulty Intermediate Government Branch Executive	Transparency	Intermediate	Executive
Transparency	Create public databases of disinformation incidents Maintain publicly accessible records of identified disinformation campaigns, their characteristics, and responses to help build societal immunity. Policy Area Transparency OGP Value Transparency Degree of Difficulty Advanced Government Branch Executive	Transparency	Advanced	Executive
Civic Participation	Support media literacy education Fund and implement media literacy programs in schools and communities to help citizens identify manipulation techniques and evaluate information sources critically. Policy Area Civic Participation OGP Value Civic Participation Degree of Difficulty Foundational Government Branch Executive Legislative	Civic Participation	Foundational	Executive Legislative
Civic Participation	Engage civil society in threat monitoring Create formal mechanisms for civil society organizations to report suspected cyber attacks or other hybrid threats to relevant authorities. Establish safeguards to ensure that reporting processes do not create a chilling effect on speech. Policy Area Civic Participation OGP Value Civic Participation Degree of Difficulty Foundational Government Branch Executive	Civic Participation	Foundational	Executive
Civic Participation	Establish citizen participation in crisis planning Include communities, civil society, and local governments in resilience building and national security planning through structured advisory committees or consultation processes and practice. Policy Area Civic Participation OGP Value Civic Participation Degree of Difficulty Foundational Government Branch Executive	Civic Participation	Foundational	Executive
Civic Participation	Create a volunteer cyber defense corps Establish programs like Estonia’s Cyber Defence League that enable IT professionals to contribute to government efforts in protecting critical infrastructure and responding to cyber attacks. Policy Area Civic Participation OGP Value Civic Participation Degree of Difficulty Intermediate Government Branch Executive	Civic Participation	Intermediate	Executive
Civic Participation	Support independent fact-checking networks Provide funding and training to help independent media and civil society organizations develop professionalized fact-checking capabilities and counter-disinformation expertise. These efforts can follow processes established by well-reputed international networks, such as the Forum on Information and Democracy or the International Fact-Checking Network (IFCN). Policy Area Civic Participation OGP Value Civic Participation Degree of Difficulty Intermediate Government Branch Executive	Civic Participation	Intermediate	Executive
Civic Participation	Develop election security measures with citizen involvement Elections are frequently targeted by hybrid attacks. Engage civil society in election monitoring, voter education, and protection of democratic processes from foreign interference. Policy Area Civic Participation OGP Value Civic Participation Degree of Difficulty Intermediate Government Branch Executive	Civic Participation	Intermediate	Executive
Public Accountability	Establish oversight of surveillance and security measures Create parliamentary committees or independent oversight bodies to monitor expanded security powers and ensure they are used appropriately and proportionally. Policy Area Public Accountability OGP Value Public Accountability Degree of Difficulty Foundational Government Branch Legislative	Public Accountability	Foundational	Legislative
Public Accountability	Implement sunset clauses for emergency powers Ensure that any extraordinary powers granted to respond to hybrid threats have automatic expiration dates and require legislative renewal. Policy Area Public Accountability OGP Value Degree of Difficulty Foundational Government Branch Legislative		Foundational	Legislative
Public Accountability	Create complaint mechanisms for security overreach Establish accessible channels for reporting the abuse of security powers or violations of civil liberties in the context of hybrid threat responses. It is especially important to have such responses to counter-disinformation approaches. Policy Area Public Accountability OGP Value Public Accountability Degree of Difficulty Foundational Government Branch Executive	Public Accountability	Foundational	Executive
Public Accountability	Mandate regular reviews of counter-hybrid measures Require periodic assessment of the effectiveness and proportionality of measures taken to address hybrid threats, including the public reporting of findings. Policy Area Public Accountability OGP Value Public Accountability Degree of Difficulty Intermediate Government Branch Executive	Public Accountability	Intermediate	Executive
Public Accountability	Establish independent election security oversight Create non-partisan bodies to monitor and publicly report on election security measures and foreign interference attempts. Policy Area Public Accountability OGP Value Public Accountability Degree of Difficulty Intermediate Government Branch Executive	Public Accountability	Intermediate	Executive
Public Accountability	Implement transparency in content moderation For any government involvement in content moderation (including indirect pressure on platforms), ensure that there are clear criteria, appeal processes, and public reporting on actions taken. Policy Area Public Accountability OGP Value Public Accountability Degree of Difficulty Intermediate Government Branch Executive	Public Accountability	Intermediate	Executive
Public Accountability	Implement human rights impact assessments Require an assessment of the human rights impact of all counter-hybrid measures, with public reporting and civil society input. Policy Area Public Accountability OGP Value Public Accountability Degree of Difficulty Advanced Government Branch Executive	Public Accountability	Advanced	Executive

Examples of Reforms from OGP and Beyond

The following examples are commitments previously made within or beyond OGP that demonstrate elements of the recommendations made above.

While few OGP action plans directly address hybrid threats, several commitments on media literacy, election security, and digital governance contribute to democratic resilience. To learn more about these commitments made through the OGP process, explore the “Disinformation and Information Integrity” and the “Open Election Data” chapters of the Open Gov Guide.

Beyond OGP Action Plans

ESTONIA Cyber Defence League: Created a volunteer corps of IT professionals working alongside government officials to protect networks and respond to attacks. This work is supported by public cyber education and transparency in incident reporting, serving as a global model for civic-military cyber cooperation.
EUROPEAN UNION Regulations for Transparency in Political Advertising: Passed a regulation on political advertising in 2024 that will take effect in October 2025, with several key provisions to make political advertisements more transparent. These include: adding a transparency label to clearly identify political ads and their sponsors, limiting targeted political advertising online, and banning the provision of advertising services to third-country sponsors three months before an election or referendum.
LITHUANIA National Media Literacy Program: Launched comprehensive media literacy programs in response to Russian disinformation, which included partnering with civil society groups like Debunk.org to run school lessons, public events, and real-time fact-checking as part of broader total defense strategy.
TAIWAN Election Protection Measures against Disinformation: Implemented comprehensive election protection measures including real-time social media monitoring, strict political advertising disclosure rules, and strong cooperation with civil society watchdogs like the Taiwan FactCheck Center to defend democratic processes.
SWEDEN Public Participation in Total Defense: Includes municipalities, businesses, and civil society in defense planning, with regular nationwide emergency preparedness campaigns and civic drills that build public understanding of their role in crisis response and strengthen social cohesion. Sweden also established a Psychological Defence Agency to identify, analyze, and counter foreign malign influence on information integrity.
UKRAINE Strategic Communications for Fact Checking: The Centre for Strategic Communications works with fact checkers like StopFake and Detector Media to respond to Russian disinformation, using rapid, multilingual public messaging coordinated with civil society organizations to sustain public morale and counter false narratives.

The Role of Local Governments

Local governments play essential roles in hybrid threat resilience. They are often the front line of building social cohesion to resist divisive disinformation campaigns, maintaining trusted communication channels with residents during crises, protecting local election infrastructure, and protecting targets of cyber attacks. Many local governments have been leaders in addressing hybrid threats, often moving faster than national governments.

Who is working on this topic?

A

Argentina

Australia

B

Brazil

Buenos Aires, Argentina

C

Canada

Costa Rica

Croatia

E

Ecuador

F

France

G

Georgia (Withdrawn)

Germany

Ghana

Guatemala

I

Indonesia

Ireland

J

Jordan

L

Latvia

Lithuania

M

Malawi

Mexico State, Mexico

Mongolia

N

Netherlands

North Macedonia

P

Panama

Papua New Guinea

Paris, France

Philippines

R

Romania

S

Serbia

Sierra Leone

Spain

T

Tlalnepantla De Baz, Mexico

U

United Kingdom

Uruguay

This list reflects members with commitments in the “Elections” policy area of the Data Dashboard, which can include hybrid threat-related initiatives.

Active OGP Partners

The following organizations have recently worked on this issue in the context of OGP at the national or international level. They may have additional insights on the topic. Please note that this list is not exhaustive. If you are interested in national-level initiatives, please contact [email protected].

Benchmarking Data

The OGP 2023-2028 Strategy sets out the Open Gov Challenge and aims to provide clear benchmarks for performance through reliable data. At the current time, it is unclear if there is third-party data to match this challenge across OGP membership.

Guidance & Standards

While the list below is not exhaustive, it aims to provide a range of recommendations, standards, and analysis to guide reform in this policy area.

The OGP Support Unit and the National Democratic Institute collaborated on a series of briefs on how to counter foreign illiberal influence in elections, public debt, and information integrity.
The NATO Centre of Excellence for Strategic Communications providesresources on strategic communications and countering disinformation while maintaining democratic principles and avoiding authoritarian responses.

Freedom Houserecommendations on digital rights offer best practices for maintaining digital rights while addressing online threats, balancing security needs with civil liberties protection.
The European Centre of Excellence for Countering Hybrid Threats offersresearch and policy guidance on hybrid threat responses that maintain democratic governance and rule of law.
The RAND Corporation research on hybrid threats offers comprehensive analysis of hybrid threat patterns and effective responses, including population-centric approaches to countering influence operations.

Featured Resources

Data Dashboard

Access data on OGP commitments. Filter commitments by location, policy area, and year. Search by keyword.

21st January 2023

Broken Links

How can open data help shine a light on political corruption and make political systems fairer and more inclusive? How can we further link people and data to create a chain of accountability? Explore our new report.

13th September 2022

The Skeptic’s Guide to Open Government – 2022 Edition

Evidence continues to show that open government affects people’s lives. But there are still skeptics who are not aware of all the benefits associated with this approach. Use this guide to convince them to take an open government approach when implementing reforms.

16th May 2022

Defense and Security